Archaeology provides a glimpse into the lives of past peoples and histories that may have otherwise been forgotten. Geographic Information Systems and Technology (GIS&T) has become an invaluable tool in this endeavor by advancing the identification, documentation, and study of archaeological resources. Large scale mapping techniques have increased the efficiency of site surveys even in challenging environments. GIS&T refers to such things as remote sensing, spatial analysis, and mapping tools. The use of GIS&T for archaeology is a truly interdisciplinary field as it borrows principles from geology, oceanography, botany, meteorology and more in order to further the science. This chapter discusses some of the primary GIS&T tools and techniques used in archaeology and the primary ways in which they are applied.
Humanitarian mapping has become a growing field since its initial success during the Haiti Earthquake in 2010. The emergence of Web 2.0 and the geospatial Web allowed nonprofessionals to contribute to platforms like OpenStreetMap to assist in disaster relief and present first responders, humanitarian aid, and governments with the data needed to make informed decisions. Preemptive efforts have also been made to map the missing places of the world to increase the visibility of communities that have little to no base map available and are overlooked by governments and humanitarian aid. This has stemmed from ethical questions regarding the underrepresentation of the global South due to most humanitarian aid contributors residing in the global North on platforms such as OpenStreetMap. The recent integration of big data and artificial intelligence has shown great potential in the ability to process larger amounts of data at a faster rate. However, there are still ethical concerns and implications regarding the algorithms and modeling. This chapter covers the origins of humanitarian mapping, its progression over the last decade, the organizations at the forefront of innovation in the field, and the ethical implications that must be considered when shaping the directives of humanitarian mapping.