As we translate real world phenomena into data structures that we can store in a computer, we must determine the most appropriate spatial representation and how it relates to the characteristics of such a phenomenon. All spatial representations are derivatives of graph theory and should therefore be described in such terms. This then helps to understand the principles of low-level GIS operations. A constraint-driven approach allows the reader to evaluate implementations of the geo-relational principle in terms of the hierarchical level of mathematical space adopted.
Boundaries and zones are fundamental geographic concepts that describe and define how neighboring geographic entities relate to each other in space. Boundaries are the dividing lines that separate different areas, or zones, while zones are areas that share common characteristics or attributes and are usually separated by boundaries. Boundaries and zones are two related concepts that are among the building blocks for spatial analysis, modeling, and how neighboring geographic entities relate to each other in space.